In my previous post I discussed some of the pros and cons of using our skills making materials in various nanoarchitectures in Li-ion battery technology, mainly related to the increase in surface area and shortening of diffusion paths. Today I will concentrate in other aspects: volume and density.
Most probably, you have heard how silicon-based electrodes can boost the storage of Li-ion batteries. And you may have even noticed that a lot of the releases announcing breakthroughs in this area have the word nano in them (here's a very recent example). Indeed, one of the most serious problems of silicon electrodes is that they expand and contract enormously upon cycling because they can uptake so much lithium (hence the boost in storage capacity). In brief, what happens with big particles is that they crack into much smaller ones due to these expansion/contraction cycles (think of freeze/thaw cycles in the winter) and lose contact with the electrode additives and the electrolyte, cripling the electrode life. So starting small (i.e., nano) bypasses this issue. With less volume in a particle, it is less likely to break in several domains.
Usually, electrodes composed of nanoparticles of silicon cycle better than those composed of bigger particles... provided that we are good at building the electrode structure so that all these new particles are well connected to the current collectors (and, subsequently, the battery leads) through the electrode additives. However, issues arise when using this strategy. Guess what one of the problems is? Yes, our friends the side reactions; silicon reacts outside the voltage of stability of the electrolyte. A second problem, related to the increase in surface, is that silicon nanoparticles are much more reactive with air than micron-size particles, bringing up the need for additional safety controls during handling. In fact, some people have even proposed primary silicon/air batteries.
It is quite likely that silicon will have to be used in nanometric form to make it a viable electrode with very high capacity. But be careful with overstating the numbers. A typical strategy to keep a good electrical contact is to use more conductive additives (carbon, basically) because there are more particles to connect to each other and the current collector. Increasing the amount of polymeric binder is another strategy that is commonly used to keep the particles together. And more carbon and/or binder means less silicon, which means that we are reducing the total capacity of the electrode. Yes, in terms of the silicon only, the capacity is unchanged, but we have to count everything when building the battery! Pay attention to what companies that announce silicon-based batteries show as capacity gains and you'll see they are more modest than would be expected theoretically.
In addition, nanoparticles have a very annoying tendency to form aggregates that is very difficult to control. These aggregates form rather disorderly and, therefore, leave a lot of dead space within, which can be helpful for electrolyte wetting but also be unnecessarily high. Finally, a lot of the strategies to alleviate volume expansions in silicon electrodes rely on placing the particles far from each other, so that they don't crush against each other upon expansion. Obviously, this also helps with the aggregation, but now we have even more inactive space between particles!
The result of all these approaches is always the same: the density (mass per unit of volume) of the electrode is lowered considerably with respect to an electrode made using more traditional methods with bigger particles. In general, it is very difficult to achieve bulk packing densities of materials using nanostructured electrodes, which may, after all, be something we have to live with, in some instances, if we want them to work.
Unfortunately, lower packing density also means lower total volumetric energy density of the electrode/battery. And volumetric energy density is no laughing matter when thinking of batteries for electric vehicles. There is very limited volume available for the battery (especially in a hybrid). Using certain nanostructures as electrodes can lead to very long life, but very modest volumetric densities, so that you still need a bigger battery to power your car. When volume is factored in, the gains of using nanoparticles are systematically much more modest or even totally offset. This is a problem that is still unsolved. Scientists are getting better at synthesizing nanoparticles and we are starting to be able to control aggregation and assembly, so there are possibilities that are being explored. Now, the methods associated may imply an increase in cost of manufacturing. But I'll leave this for another day.
Most probably, you have heard how silicon-based electrodes can boost the storage of Li-ion batteries. And you may have even noticed that a lot of the releases announcing breakthroughs in this area have the word nano in them (here's a very recent example). Indeed, one of the most serious problems of silicon electrodes is that they expand and contract enormously upon cycling because they can uptake so much lithium (hence the boost in storage capacity). In brief, what happens with big particles is that they crack into much smaller ones due to these expansion/contraction cycles (think of freeze/thaw cycles in the winter) and lose contact with the electrode additives and the electrolyte, cripling the electrode life. So starting small (i.e., nano) bypasses this issue. With less volume in a particle, it is less likely to break in several domains.
Usually, electrodes composed of nanoparticles of silicon cycle better than those composed of bigger particles... provided that we are good at building the electrode structure so that all these new particles are well connected to the current collectors (and, subsequently, the battery leads) through the electrode additives. However, issues arise when using this strategy. Guess what one of the problems is? Yes, our friends the side reactions; silicon reacts outside the voltage of stability of the electrolyte. A second problem, related to the increase in surface, is that silicon nanoparticles are much more reactive with air than micron-size particles, bringing up the need for additional safety controls during handling. In fact, some people have even proposed primary silicon/air batteries.
It is quite likely that silicon will have to be used in nanometric form to make it a viable electrode with very high capacity. But be careful with overstating the numbers. A typical strategy to keep a good electrical contact is to use more conductive additives (carbon, basically) because there are more particles to connect to each other and the current collector. Increasing the amount of polymeric binder is another strategy that is commonly used to keep the particles together. And more carbon and/or binder means less silicon, which means that we are reducing the total capacity of the electrode. Yes, in terms of the silicon only, the capacity is unchanged, but we have to count everything when building the battery! Pay attention to what companies that announce silicon-based batteries show as capacity gains and you'll see they are more modest than would be expected theoretically.
In addition, nanoparticles have a very annoying tendency to form aggregates that is very difficult to control. These aggregates form rather disorderly and, therefore, leave a lot of dead space within, which can be helpful for electrolyte wetting but also be unnecessarily high. Finally, a lot of the strategies to alleviate volume expansions in silicon electrodes rely on placing the particles far from each other, so that they don't crush against each other upon expansion. Obviously, this also helps with the aggregation, but now we have even more inactive space between particles!
The result of all these approaches is always the same: the density (mass per unit of volume) of the electrode is lowered considerably with respect to an electrode made using more traditional methods with bigger particles. In general, it is very difficult to achieve bulk packing densities of materials using nanostructured electrodes, which may, after all, be something we have to live with, in some instances, if we want them to work.
Unfortunately, lower packing density also means lower total volumetric energy density of the electrode/battery. And volumetric energy density is no laughing matter when thinking of batteries for electric vehicles. There is very limited volume available for the battery (especially in a hybrid). Using certain nanostructures as electrodes can lead to very long life, but very modest volumetric densities, so that you still need a bigger battery to power your car. When volume is factored in, the gains of using nanoparticles are systematically much more modest or even totally offset. This is a problem that is still unsolved. Scientists are getting better at synthesizing nanoparticles and we are starting to be able to control aggregation and assembly, so there are possibilities that are being explored. Now, the methods associated may imply an increase in cost of manufacturing. But I'll leave this for another day.
More reading materials for those interested in the science of silicon electrodes:
Larcher et al., Recent findings and prospects in the field of pure metals as negative electrodes for Li-ion batteries, Journal of Materials Chemistry 17, 3759 - 3772 (2007)
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